The Expression of Knowledge

What we know about the world and its opportunities limits what we do. If we do not know that there is a pot of gold at the end of the rainbow, we will not follow it. If we do not know that a desert cactus contains water, we will not cut into it for sustenance. Often, however, we do know things about the world and yet the knowledge does not seem to be reflected in behavior. Explaining this fact simply in terms of inadequate motivation for expression or incomplete memory for the important in­ formation does not really add much to our understanding. The ex­ pression of knowledge can be interrupted in very special ways by a variety of more specific conditions-fatigue, sources of forgetting that may include failure of memory retrieval, emotion, and various dysfunc­ tions of brain and body systems-that are not satisfactorily incorporated by any current theories of motivation or memory. Also, a dissociation between knowledge and its expression can take the form of applying knowledge without apparent awareness of this action, a phenomenon that requires complicated assumptions for explanation in terms of either motivation or memory. Dissociations between knowledge and action may be striking. After driving home on a familiar route we may not be able to report whether the last three traffic lights were red or green; yet we must have re­ sponded appropriately to them.

1 The Problem of Expression.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Knowledge.- 3. Assessing Knowledge.- 4. What Determines Expression?.- 5. Examples of the Problem.- 6. Retrieval of Memories.- 7. References.- 2 Memory, Amnesia, and the Episodic/Semantic Distinction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Episodic and Semantic Memory.- 3. Organic Amnesia.- 4. Hypnotic Amnesia.- 5. Functional Retrograde Amnesia.- 6. Concluding Comments.- 7. References.- 3 A Conditioning Analysis of Infant Memory: How Do We Know They Know What We Know They Knew?.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Inference of Memory Processing and Retention.- 3. A Conditioning Analysis of Infant Memory.- 4. Forgotten But Not Gone: The Reactivation of Infant Memory.- 5. Summary and Conclusions.- 6. References.- 4 Memory Retrieval Failures Produced by Changes in Drug State.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Common Drug Effects on Learning and Retention.- 3. A Conceptual History of State-Dependent Retrieval.- 4. Recent Evidence about the Mechanism of SDR and DDS.- 5. References.- 5 Neuropeptides and Memory.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Pro-opio-melanocortin fragments, Memory, and Cognition.- 3. Hypothalamic Neurosecretory Peptides in Memory and Cognition.- 4. Are Neuropeptides Indispensable for Memory and Cognition?.- 5. Conclusion.- 6. References.- 6 Memory, Remembering, and Amnesia.- 1. Introduction.- 2. On Ribot's and Robbins's Principles.- 3. On the Theory of Long-Term Decay.- 4. On the Theory of Memorial Displacement.- 5. On the Theory of Trace Amalgamation.- 6. On the Theory of Distributed Storage.- 7. On Storage of Completely Latent Memories.- 8. On the Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex.- 9. On the Functions of the Temporal Neocortex.- 10. Conclusion.- 11. References.- 7 The Hippocampus and the Expression of Knowledge.- 1. Introduction: Summational andRetrieval Processes.- 2. The Hippocampus and Memory.- 3. Hippocampal Ablation in Animals: An Overview.- 4. Conditional Operations.- 5. Retrieval during Acquisition.- 6. Dimensions.- 7. Transformations.- 8. Relations between Conditional and Summational Systems.- 9. Summary.- 10. References.- 8 Motivation, Activation, and Behavioral Integration.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Behavioral Fragmentation and Reintegration Following Lateral Hypothalamic Damage.- 3. Sensory Neglect: An Activational Deficit.- 4. Recovery of Motivated Behavior.- 5. Hypothalamic Activation of Patterned Reflexes.- 6. The Role of Activation in Development.- 7. Activation and Changing Concepts of the Reticular Formation.- 8. Conclusions.- 9. References.- 9 Neurochemical Consequences of Stress: Intrusion of Nonassociative Factors in Behavioral Analysis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Stress and Avoidance Behavior.- 3. Escape Behavior.- 4. Stress and Neurochemical Change.- 5. Pharmacological Manipulations and Avoidance Performance.- 6. Pharmacological Manipulations and Escape Behavior.- 7. Analgesia.- 8. Summary.- 9. References.- 10 Lateralization of Emotional or Behavioral Responses in Intact and Hemisphere-Damaged Humans and Rats.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Noncortical Areas Involved in Human Emotion.- 3. Human Hemispheric Specialization in Normals.- 4. Human Clinicopathological Correlations.- 5. Animal Studies and Lateralization.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 11 Neural and Mental Capacities.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Habits.- 3. Automatic and Voluntary Acts.- 4. Motor Systems and Mental Activity.- 5. Brain Damage and Performance.- 6. Frustration-Induced Perseveration.- 7. A Mental Currency.- 8. Brain Damage and Mental Capacities.- 9. Reprise.- 10. References.